Immanuel Kant [imm'aanuel kant] (22. aprill 1724 Königsberg – 12. veebruar 1804 Königsberg) oli saksa filosoof Päritolu. Si’ovra Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781) marchescha ina vieuta en l’istorgia da la filosofia ed il cumenzament da la filosofia moderna. Immanuel Kant; Immanuel Kant Gimė 1724 m. balandžio 22 d. Karaliaučius: Mirė 1804 m. vasario 12 d. (79 metai) Karaliaučius: Veikla filosofas, klasikinės vokieči ų filosofijos pradininkas. By uniting these general representations into one global representation, we can see how a transcendental self emerges. [50] In his Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, he reveals a belief in immortality as the necessary condition of humanity's approach to the highest morality possible. Only in this way can actions, as phenomena, be a consequence of freedom, and be understood and evaluated as such. This is the first formulation of the categorical imperative, often known as the universalizability principle. Images of external objects must be kept in the same sequence in which they were received. "[126] The reason for these views was Kant's moral theology, and the widespread belief that his philosophy was the great antithesis to Spinozism, which had been convulsing the European academy for much of the 18th century. [93] His unfinished final work was published as Opus Postumum. The philosophical maxim on which one acts should always be considered to be a universal law without exception. Although fond of company and conversation with others, Kant isolated himself, and resisted friends' attempts to bring him out of his isolation. Dia berasal dari keluarga pengrajin yang sederhana. Do not the divinity and beneficence of the latter become all the more evident? Immanuel Kant (UK: /kænt/,[18][19] US: /kɑːnt/;[20][21] German: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant, -nu̯ɛl -];[22][23] 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. [1] This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. The reflected light reaches the human eye, passes through the cornea, is focused by the lens onto the retina where it forms an image similar to that formed by light passing through a pinhole into a camera obscura. Schulze, Jacobi, and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. He had a circle of friends with whom he frequently met, among them Joseph Green, an English merchant in Königsberg. He wanted to learn the nature of human experience: how humans could know something, and what their knowledge was based on. [185], Mou Zongsan's study of Kant has been cited as a highly crucial part in the development of Mou’s personal philosophy, namely New Confucianism. Things in themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe nor are they completely beyond our access. Jeden z najwybitniejszych reprezentantów oświecenia. The issue that vexed Kant was central to what 20th-century scholars called "the philosophy of mind". ", "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch: Appendix 1", "The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom", "Kant on the different human races (1777)", "Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research", "Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology", "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space", "Immanuel Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft - 1. Kant was very shocked by Hume, and saw the theory he had learned in a new point of view. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Similar concerns moved Hegel's criticisms to Kant's concept of moral autonomy, to which Hegel opposed an ethic focused on the "ethical life" of the community. The prize was instead awarded in 1756 to P. Frisi, who incorrectly argued against the slowing down of the spin. And Hegel can be seen as trying to defend Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "desires", by means of reason. Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze is credited with bringing Kant's contributions to racism to light in the 1990s among Western philosophers, who often gloss over this part of his life and works. Learn to edit; get help. Kant also stated that the moral means and ends can be applied to the categorical imperative, that rational beings can pursue certain "ends" using the appropriate "means". Unlike a hypothetical imperative, a categorical imperative is an unconditional obligation; it has the force of an obligation regardless of our will or desires[112] In Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785) Kant enumerated three formulations of the categorical imperative that he believed to be roughly equivalent. He falls of his own accord into savagery." According to the "transcendental unity of apperception", the concepts of the mind (Understanding) and perceptions or intuitions that garner information from phenomena (Sensibility) are synthesized by comprehension. He told many more jokes throughout his lectures and writings. He said the Native Americans are "far below the Negro, who undoubtedly holds the lowest of all remaining levels by which we designate the different races". Decide if contradictions or irrationalities would arise in the possible world as a result of following the maxim. Kant died on February 12, 1804 with the final words "Es ist gut" ("It is good").[2]. However, that it is analytic can be disproved by considering the calculation 5 + 7 = 12: there is nothing in the numbers 5 and 7 by which the number 12 can be inferred. He opposed "democracy," which at his time meant direct democracy, believing that majority rule posed a threat to individual liberty. Kant has influenced many modern thinkers, including Hannah Arendt, and John Rawls. [69] In 1755, Kant received a license to lecture in the University of Königsberg and began lecturing on a variety of topics including mathematics, physics, logic and metaphysics. Kant's mausoleum adjoins the northeast corner of Königsberg Cathedral in Kaliningrad, Russia. Andrew Fiala, Kuehn, M. (2001). [33] The nature of Kant's religious views continues to be the subject of scholarly dispute, with viewpoints ranging from the impression that he shifted from an early defense of an ontological argument for the existence of God to a principled agnosticism, to more critical treatments epitomized by Schopenhauer, who criticized the imperative form of Kantian ethics as "theological morals" and the "Mosaic Decalogue in disguise",[34] and Nietzsche, who claimed that Kant had "theologian blood"[35] and was merely a sophisticated apologist for traditional Christian faith. [132], In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant distinguishes between the transcendental idea of freedom, which as a psychological concept is "mainly empirical" and refers to "whether a faculty of beginning a series of successive things or states from itself is to be assumed"[30]:486 (A 448/B 467) and the practical concept of freedom as the independence of our will from the "coercion" or "necessitation through sensuous impulses". [152] Introduction to Kant's Anthropology was translated into English and published by the Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy series in 2006.[153]. The 'two-world' interpretation regards Kant's position as a statement of epistemological limitation, that we are not able to transcend the bounds of our own mind, meaning that we cannot access the "thing-in-itself". Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724. In the "Critique of Aesthetic Judgment," the first major division of the Critique of Judgment, Kant used the term "aesthetic" in a manner that, according to Kant scholar W.H. It was argued that because the "thing in itself" was unknowable, its existence must not be assumed. The latter are not concepts,[100] but are forms of sensibility that are a priori necessary conditions for any possible experience. [47], Kant was born on 22 April 1724 into a Prussian German family of Lutheran Protestant faith in Königsberg, East Prussia. It is self-evident, and undeniably a priori, but at the same time it is synthetic. German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics", Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the, History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. Životopis. [131] As for Kant's book Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason,[88] it was emphasized that Kant reduced religiosity to rationality, religion to morality and Christianity to ethics. Kant asserts that experience is based on the perception of external objects and a priori knowledge. Volt egy nővére, két húga és egy öccse. [84] Its reception stood in stark contrast to the praise Kant had received for earlier works, such as his Prize Essay and shorter works that preceded the first Critique. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. Immanuel Kant (Königsberg, Prusia; 22 de abril de 1724-ibídem, 12 de febrero de 1804) fue un filósofo y científico alemán de la Ilustración. Kota itu sekarang bernama Kaliningrad di Rusia. [26] He attempted to explain the relationship between reason and human experience and to move beyond what he believed to be the failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. Arthur Schopenhauer was strongly influenced by Kant's transcendental idealism. In 2005, the university was renamed Immanuel Kant State University of Russia. Without concepts, perceptions are nondescript; without perceptions, concepts are meaningless. Kant and Johann Kaspar Lavater were correspondents on theological matters, and Lavater refers to Kant in his work "Physiognomic Fragments, for the Education of Human Knowledge and Love of People" (Leipzig & Winterthur, 1775–1778).[96]. Kant himself seems to have found his contribution not significant enough that he published his arguments in a newspaper commentary on the prize question and did not submit them to the Academy. As Kant's philosophy disregarded the possibility of arguing for God through pure reason alone, for the same reasons it also disregarded the possibility of arguing against God through pure reason alone. In Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch (1795), Kant listed several conditions that he thought necessary for ending wars and creating a lasting peace. The human subject seen as the centre of inquiry into human knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they exist independently of human perception or of how they are for us; The notion that is possible to discover and systematically explore the inherent limits to our ability to know entirely "a priori"; The notion of the "categorical imperative," an assertion that people are naturally endowed with the ability and obligation toward right reason and acting. He regarded himself as showing the way past the impasse between rationalists and empiricists,[31] and is widely held to have synthesized both traditions in his thought. [135], Kant discusses the subjective nature of aesthetic qualities and experiences in Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime (1764). [73] According to Thomas Huxley (1867), Kant also made contributions to geology in his Universal Natural History. For example, one should not steal, however dire the circumstances—because, by permitting oneself to steal, one makes stealing a universally acceptable act. "Religión, Política y Medicina en Kant: El Conflicto de las Proposiciones". Thus the objective order of nature and the causal necessity that operates within it depend on the mind's processes, the product of the rule-based activity that Kant called, "synthesis." The mathematical sublime results from the failure of the imagination to comprehend natural objects that appear boundless and formless, or appear "absolutely great" (§§ 23–25). It received few reviews, and these granted it no significance. Praxis International (32–44). 1804.) Gulyga, Arsenij. Kant wrote two other books named Critique: Critique of the practical reason (1788) and Critique of the Judgement (1790). New to Wikipedia? [127] Among the major targets of his criticism are external ritual, superstition and a hierarchical church order. [124] Johann Schultz, who wrote one of the first Kant commentaries, wrote "And does not this system itself cohere most splendidly with the Christian religion? Hume had tried to make clear what our experience had been, and had reached a very strong opinion called "skepticism", that there was nothing to make our experience sure. Kant maintained that one ought to think autonomously, free of the dictates of external authority. His classical republican theory was extended in Doctrine of Right (1797), the first part of Metaphysics of Morals. [105][107] In the context of transcendental schema the concept of transcendental reflection is of a great importance.[108]. He was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. More recent interpreters of note in the English-speaking world include Lewis White Beck, Jonathan Bennett, Henry Allison, Paul Guyer, Christine Korsgaard, Stephen Palmquist, Robert B. Pippin, Roger Scruton, Rudolf Makkreel, and Béatrice Longuenesse. For the categories are equivalent to these moments, in that they are concepts of intuitions in general, so far as they are determined by these moments universally and necessarily. [159] He believed that in the future all races would be extinguished, except that of the whites.[157]. He was made the second librarian of the Royal Library in 1766. Lying is the action; the motivation is to fulfill some sort of desire. During the turn of the 20th century there was an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as the Marburg School, represented in the work of Hermann Cohen, Paul Natorp, Ernst Cassirer,[169] and anti-Neo-Kantian Nicolai Hartmann. In 1755 Kant became a lecturer and stayed in this position until 1770. During his own life, much critical attention was paid to his thought. In his 1756 essay on the theory of winds, Kant laid out an original insight into the coriolis force. [157] Robert Bernasconi stated that Kant "supplied the first scientific definition of race". Ein philosophischer Entwurf"), Appendix 1. Additionally, Garve and Feder also faulted Kant's Critique for not explaining differences in perception of sensations. It is often claimed that Kant was a late developer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50s after rejecting his earlier views. Beardsley, Monroe. Take, for example, the declaration "I will lie for personal benefit". He began to try finding a third way other than the two that Kant called "skepticism" and "dogmaticism". objective knowledge, are now in place. Kant studied philosophy in the university there, and later became a professor of philosophy. The concept of freedom is also handled in the third section of the. We can think "thing itself" but cannot have any experience about it, nor know it. This necessitates practical self-reflection in which we universalize our reasons. [64] He also dissuaded Kant from idealism, the idea that reality is purely mental, which most philosophers in the 18th century regarded in a negative light. About black Africans, Kant wrote that "they can be educated but only as servants, that is they allow themselves to be trained". He could have lived a life of private lecturer as interested in physics, both astronomical objects (such as planets and stars) and the earth. In his entire life Kant never travelled more than seventy miles from the city of Königsberg. In 1740 he entered the University of Königsberg[1] and studied the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz and his follower Christian Wolff. From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Wikipedia:How to write Simple English pages, Stephen Plaquist's Glossary of Kantian Terminology, https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&oldid=7266991, Pages needing to be simplified from May 2012, Articles with German-language sources (de), Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers, Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers, Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WorldCat identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. [30]:677 (A 806/B 834) Accordingly, he believed that moral obligation applies only to rational agents.[111]. There are two relatively recent translations: R.K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name". Central to many debates in philosophy of psychology and cognitive science is Kant's conception of the unity of consciousness. Roedd yn un o feddylwyr mwyaf dylanwadol Cyfnod yr Ymoleuo a chaiff ei ystyried yn un o athronwyr mwyaf canolog athroniaeth fodern. Was Kant's forehead shaped this way in these images because he was a philosopher, or, to follow the implications of Lavater's system, was he a philosopher because of the intellectual acuity manifested by his forehead? Put new text under old text. IV. [82] Similar to Christian Garve and Johann Georg Heinrich Feder, he rejected Kant's position that space and time possessed a form that could be analyzed. He influenced Reinhold, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, and Novalis during the 1780s and 1790s. [30]:674–6 (A 800–2/B 828–30) (The same distinction of transcendental and practical meaning can be applied to the idea of God, with the proviso that the practical concept of freedom can be experienced. Vepra e tij Kritikë e arsyes së kulluar shënon pikë-kthesën qendrore në historinë e filozofisë dhe fillimin e filozofisë moderne. ", he defined the Enlightenment as an age shaped by the Latin motto Sapere aude ("Dare to be wise"). Kant was eventually given the Chair of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. Artifacts previously owned by Kant, known as Kantiana, were included in the Königsberg City Museum. It can not be a personal fantasy either, since those limitations were common to all human reason before our particular experience. Immanuel Kant – a study and a comparison with Goethe, Leonardo da Vinci, Bruno, Plato and Descartes, the authorised translation from the German by Lord Redesdale, with his 'Introduction', The Bodley Head, London, 1914, (2 volumes). that space and time are 'a priori' forms of human perception rather than real properties, that human perception is entirely informed by "a priori" epistemic structures, and the claim that formal logic and transcendental logic coincide) have been falsified in modern science and logic,[161][162][163] and don't set any longer the intellectual agenda of contemporary philosophers, Kant is credited with having changed the framework within which modern philosophical inquiry has been carried at least up to the early nineteenth century. If he fails to do either (as often occurs), he may still ask whether it is in his interest to accept one or the other of the alternatives hypothetically, from the theoretical or the practical point of view. The final result is not the most important aspect of an action; rather, how the person feels while carrying out the action is the time when value is attached to the result. A phrase quoted by Kant, which is used to summarize the counter-utilitarian nature of his moral philosophy, is Fiat justitia, pereat mundus, ("Let justice be done, though the world perish"), which he translates loosely as "Let justice reign even if all the rascals in the world should perish from it". To do so, Kant formulates another transcendental deduction. Friedrich Jacobi had accused the recently deceased Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist) of Spinozism. These themselves, however, have in turn their more remote aim, namely, what is to be done if the will is free, if there is a God, and if there is a future world. The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. According to Kant, people should know what human reason can do and which limits it has. As a necessity working according to laws we do not know, we call it destiny. After finishing his study in the university, Kant hoped to be a teacher of philosophy, but it was very difficult. The incident is apparently connected with a recent vote to rename Khrabrovo Airport, where Kant was in the lead for a while, prompting Russian nationalist resentment.[98]. These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in 18th-century philosophy. Sign your posts by typing four tildes (~~~~). [176], Prominent recent Kantians include the British philosophers P.F. Kant's influence on Western thought has been profound. He never married,[59] but seemed to have a rewarding social life — he was a popular teacher and a modestly successful author even before starting on his major philosophical works. The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100). For other uses, see, Categories of the Faculty of Understanding, However, Kant has also been interpreted as a defender of the, "Up to now it has been assumed that all our cognition must conform to the objects; but all attempts to find out something about them, Nietzsche wrote that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul.". [101] Kant maintains that understanding of the external world had its foundations not merely in experience, but in both experience and a priori concepts, thus offering a non-empiricist critique of rationalist philosophy, which is what has been referred to as his Copernican revolution.[102]. It is, rather, evidence of an unchanging and unchangeable moral quality. by James Faubion, Trans. My great thanks, to my well-wishers and friends, who think so kindly of me as to undertake my welfare, but at the same time a most humble request to protect me in my current condition from any disturbance.[79]. Februar 1804 ebenda) war ein deutscher Philosoph der Aufklärung.Kant zählt zu den bedeutendsten Vertretern der abendländischen Philosophie.Sein Werk Kritik der reinen Vernunft kennzeichnet einen Wendepunkt in der Philosophiegeschichte und den Beginn der modernen Philosophie.. Kant schuf eine neue, umfassende … njemački je filozof koji se smatra posljednjim velikim misliocem razdoblja Prosvjetiteljstva. Kant's influence also has extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciences, as in the sociology of Max Weber, the psychology of Jean Piaget and Carl Gustav Jung,[188][189] and the linguistics of Noam Chomsky. L test ie a disposizion sota Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; L po se dé autra condizions. In: Habermas, J. judgements of beauty), lay claim to universal validity (§§ 20–22). Kant believed that, if an action is not done with the motive of duty, then it is without moral value. In principle, "So act as if your maxims should serve at the same time as the universal law (of all rational beings)", meaning that we should so act that we may think of ourselves as "a member in the universal realm of ends", legislating universal laws through our maxims (that is, a universal code of conduct), in a "possible realm of ends". On the other hand, a synthetic statement is one that tells us something about the world. He thought that every action should have pure intention behind it; otherwise, it is meaningless. : Immanuel Kant, 22 prill 1724 Königsberg, Prusi — 12 shkurt 1804 po aty) ishte një filozof i madh gjerman dhe një ndër filozofët më të shquar të asaj kohe. [83] Its density made it, as Herder said in a letter to Johann Georg Hamann, a "tough nut to crack", obscured by "all this heavy gossamer". The same considerations apply to the mind's function of constituting space for ordering mappings of visual and tactile signals arriving via the already described chains of physical causation. Kant's father, Johann Georg Kant (1682–1746), was a German harness maker from Memel, at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now Klaipėda, Lithuania). Many myths grew up about Kant's personal mannerisms; these are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwait's introduction to his translation of Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime.[62]. In this instance, weight is not a necessary predicate of the body; until we are told the heaviness of the body we do not know that it has weight. … Pauline Kleingeld argues that while Kant was indeed a staunch advocate of scientific racism for much of his career, his views on race changed significantly in the last decade of his life. Kant lectured on anthropology, the study of human nature, for twenty-three and a half years. Kant's Lectures on Anthropology were published for the first time in 1997 in German. In Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Kant also posited the "counter-utilitarian idea that there is a difference between preferences and values, and that considerations of individual rights temper calculations of aggregate utility", a concept that is an axiom in economics:[115]. P.F. However, Heinrich Heine noted the magnitude of "his destructive, world-crushing thoughts" and considered him a sort of philosophical "executioner", comparing him to Robespierre with the observation that both men "represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois. "[137] After A. G. Baumgarten, who wrote Aesthetica (1750–58),[138] Kant was one of the first philosophers to develop and integrate aesthetic theory into a unified and comprehensive philosophical system, utilizing ideas that played an integral role throughout his philosophy.[139]. After the expulsion of Königsberg's German population at the end of World War II, the University of Königsberg where Kant taught was replaced by the Russian-language Kaliningrad State University, which appropriated the campus and surviving buildings. The most-known work of Kant is the book Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft) that Kant published in 1781. This ordering occurs through the mind's intuition of time. His work reconciled many of the differences between the rationalist and empiricist traditions of the 18th century. In other words, we filter what we see and hear. Some commentators[141] argue that Kant's critical philosophy contains a third kind of the sublime, the moral sublime, which is the aesthetic response to the moral law or a representation, and a development of the "noble" sublime in Kant's theory of 1764. Something must be giving order to the incoming data. In the 19th century, German philosophers like Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer and writers like Herder, Schiller, and Goethe were influenced by Kant. Using the Four Temperaments of ancient Greece, he proposed a hierarchy of four racial categories: white Europeans, yellow Asians, black Africans, and red Amerindians. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. 581–82, 603. Before Kant's first Critique, empiricists (cf. See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. Ends based on physical needs or wants create hypothetical imperatives. Bha an teaghlach glè chreidmheach, agus bha buaidh làidir aige sin air an fheallsanachd aige. Hume) and rationalists (cf. Wilhelm Dilthey inaugurated the Academy edition (the Akademie-Ausgabe abbreviated as AA or Ak) of Kant's writings (Gesammelte Schriften, Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin, 1902–38) in 1895,[217] and served as its first editor. "History of Aesthetics". Immanuel Kant (n. 22 aprilie 1724, Königsberg, Prusia – d. 12 februarie 1804, Königsberg, Prusia) a fost un filosof german, unul din cei mai mari gânditori din perioada iluminismului în Germania.Kant este socotit unul din cei mai mari filozofi din istoria culturii apusene. But the uncertainty aroused by these considerations, by optical illusions, misperceptions, delusions, etc., are not the end of the problems. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used.. His thought on human beings, especially on morals, human freedom and perpetual peace, impressed Kant. [147] Kant believed that universal history leads to the ultimate world of republican states at peace, but his theory was not pragmatic. Kant is known for his theory that there is a single moral obligation, which he called the "Categorical Imperative", and is derived from the concept of duty. He had a decisive impact on the Romantic and German Idealistphilosophies of the 19th century. ", "Open letter by Kant denouncing Fichte's Philosophy", "Resurrecting Königsberg: Russian City Looks to German Roots", "Kant monument splashed with pink paint in Kaliningrad", "Kant, Immanuel definition of Kant, Immanuel in the Free Online Encyclopedia", "What is Kant's Transcendental Reflection? - 12.2. Man thinks via judgments, so all possible judgments must be listed and the perceptions connected within them put aside, so as to make it possible to examine the moments when the understanding is engaged in constructing judgments. In 1749, he published his first philosophical work, Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces (written in 1745–47). Find the agent's maxim (i.e., an action paired with its motivation). L revoluzionea la filosofia. In 1766 Kant wrote Dreams of a Spirit-Seer which dealt with the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg. His work has also been a starting point for many 20th century philosophers. Kant studied philosophy in the university there, and later became a professor of philosophy. When he evaluated a statement made by an African, Kant dismissed the statement with the comment: “this fellow was quite black from head to foot, a clear proof that what he said was stupid.” It cannot, therefore, be argued that skin color for Kant was merely a physical characteristic. The retinal cells send impulses through the optic nerve and then they form a mapping in the brain of the visual features of the object.